Enlightenment and Freedom
开悟与自由
By Wang Shuren （王树人）
Wang Shuren, a distinguished scholar, graduated from the Department of Philosophy at Peking University in 1962. In 1965, he earned his postgraduate degree from the Institute of Philosophy at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, studying under Professors Yang Yizhi and He Lin. Between 1986 and 1988, he conducted research at the universities of Munich, Bochum, and Bonn in Germany. He has served as Deputy Director of the Academic Committee and Director of the History of Western Philosophy Division at the Institute of Philosophy, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS). Currently, he is a research fellow at the Institute of Philosophy, CASS; a professor and doctoral advisor at the Graduate School; and Honorary President of the Chinese Society for the History of Foreign Philosophy.
【Editor’s Note: Wang Shuren explores the philosophical parallels between Daoism and Zen Buddhism, emphasizing their shared pursuit of freedom through non-attachment and enlightenment. Drawing on Zhuangzi and the Sixth Patriarch Huineng, he highlights the concept of "non-dependence" (wudai), which rejects worldly constraints on thought. Contrary to leftist critiques labeling Zhuangzi's ideas as nihilistic, Wang argues that "non-dependence" embodies ultimate intellectual freedom, aligning with Daoism’s "three negations": no achievement, no fame, no self. He contrasts Daoism’s fluid approach to change with Confucianism’s reverence for tradition, noting Confucius' inconsistency in recognizing historical evolution. Daoism's acceptance of the breakdown of the Zhou ritual contrasts with Confucian resistance, illustrating a philosophical divide on societal transformation. Wang suggests that enlightenment fosters originality, driving both individual wisdom and civilizational progress. Ultimately, he argues that true freedom lies in transcending attachment while engaging with the world—a principle at the heart of both Daoist and Zen thought.】
Preface
Matters of thought pertain to the realm of the mind, and image-based thinking is no exception.
The following five brief reflections delve into significant aspects of image-based thinking.
Enlightenment is a concept introduced by Zen Buddhism and stands as a core issue in image-based thinking. Only through enlightenment can one attain freedom, which in turn signifies enlightenment.
In Chinese Daoism, particularly in the works of Zhuangzi, freedom holds paramount importance. His essay "Free and Easy Wandering" ("Xiaoyaoyou") discusses methods of achieving freedom and its manifestations. Zhuangzi presents three archetypes:
The Sage – without achievement ("无功")
The Divine Person – without fame ("无名")
The Perfected Person – without self ("无己")
In contrast to these ideals are those who covet merit and fame, claiming them as personal possessions.
Similarly, the Sixth Patriarch Huineng proposed his "three non-attachments": no form ("无相"), no thought ("无念"), and no abiding ("无住").
Huineng's central philosophy posits that while forms, thoughts, and all sensory experiences are unavoidable, one can practice "non-abiding," meaning not to linger upon them.
Thus, Huineng's "three non-attachments" culminate in non-attachment. One may allow images and thoughts to flow through the mind, but true freedom is achieved only when one is not fixated on any particular point.
Evidently, Daoism and Zen share profound similarities in their pursuit of freedom. Both sets of "three non-attachments" aim to dismantle the constraints that bind one's intellectual freedom.
The Sage's lack of achievement does not imply a disregard for merit or fame. Rather, it suggests that even with great accomplishments and renown, one does not cling to them, thereby entering a state of true freedom.
I
The difficulty of attaining enlightenment pertains to the average person, or more specifically, to the majority with ordinary endowments. Individuals differ in their innate capacities.
In common parlance, these innate capacities are referred to as one's talent or genius. For those exceptionally gifted, enlightenment is not arduous. This parallels students solving mathematical problems: those with high aptitude grasp solutions swiftly, while those less gifted may struggle despite prolonged effort.
According to the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch ("六祖法宝坛经"), upon hearing someone recite the Diamond Sutra ("金刚经"), Huineng immediately attained enlightenment. Subsequently, when he sought mentorship under the Fifth Patriarch in Huangmei, his responses revealed his enlightened state to the Patriarch. In response to Shenxiu's verse:
"The body is the bodhi tree, and the mind is a bright mirror stand. Constantly polish and clean, Let no dust alight."
Huineng composed his verse, reflecting his enlightened perspective:
"Bodhi originally has no tree; The bright mirror also lacks a stand. Fundamentally, not a single thing exists. Where could dust collect?"
In Chinese Buddhism, both the Zen and Esoteric schools originate from Mahayana Buddhism, which is fundamentally rooted in emptiness, encapsulated by the concept of "dependent origination and emptiness of nature" ("缘起性空"). Huineng's aforementioned verse precisely aligns with this Mahayana doctrine.
If we associate the enlightenment of genius with originality, then enlightenment becomes not only the fundamental path for personal cultivation towards Buddhahood or sagehood but also a foundational approach to enhancing the quality of a nation's populace and fostering inventive and creative capacities.
Throughout history and across cultures, the innovative advancement of human civilization relies on nurturing environments that cultivate talented individuals and on superior social systems that respect and protect such talents. These individuals are the pioneers of civilizational innovation.
Geniuses possess the highest levels of insight and the strongest capacity for enlightenment. Consequently, they have the broadest perspectives and the keenest ability to discern the essence of matters. This capacity for enlightenment stems from their developed image-based thinking, which showcases their innovative abilities through the "flow and transformation of images."
Newton's discovery of gravity and universal gravitation began with his associative observation of an apple falling. Watt's invention of the steam engine was inspired by observing steam lifting a kettle lid. Numerous biomimetic inventions originate from observing and associating with the flight of birds, the swimming of fish, or the movements of other animals, and so forth.
The "emptiness" foundational to Zen and Esoteric Buddhism, derived from Mahayana Buddhism, is not the mathematical zero, nor is it the common notion of nothingness. This "emptiness" represents a vast, boundless space of intellectual freedom that emerges after eliminating distracting thoughts. Enlightenment based on this emptiness is the great intellectual freedom attained by clearing all mundane and miscellaneous thoughts.
II
The pursuit and enjoyment of freedom are intrinsic to human nature. The significance of this freedom lies in the fact that only a free person truly returns to their authentic self. Hence, the saying, "Give me liberty, or give me death."
Laozi repeatedly emphasized the need for individuals to return to an infant-like state, as infancy exemplifies one's original state of freedom. Physiologically, adults cannot revert to infancy. Laozi's call to return to infancy is evidently a spiritual return, akin to the common exhortation to preserve one's childlike heart.
From childhood innocence to adulthood, one's growth involves receiving education in various facets of human civilization. The education imparted by family, society, and schools transforms individuals into civilized beings but also binds them with the ropes of unfreedom. What does this mean? As society progresses, not only does scientific knowledge require continuous innovation, but ethics, aesthetics, and lifestyles also demand constant renewal. In such times, clinging to traditional knowledge, ethics, aesthetics, and ways of life becomes an obstacle to innovation.
Conversely, this necessitates drawing from Laozi's idea of returning to infancy, akin to phenomenology's call to "bracket" previous conceptions of science, ethics, and aesthetics. Or, as advocated by Zen and Esoteric Buddhism, one must seek "enlightenment," eliminating all old and distracting thoughts to open up vast spaces for free imagination and contemplation conducive to innovation.
III
On the subject of freedom, Zhuangzi put forth an ideal—"non-dependence" (wudai, 无待).
This ideal of "non-dependence" has, at times, faced severe criticism from the political left, who have labeled Zhuangzi’s philosophy as idealism, nihilism, or a form of Ah Q-style escapism. The English term "idealism" does not necessarily carry the negative connotation assigned to it by such critics. The root of the word "ideal" inherently contains the notion of aspiration or vision. Idealism, in this sense, includes an element of utopianism.
It is crucial to emphasize that Zhuangzi is not a collection of theoretical essays but rather a work of allegory. The text expresses ideas through symbols, metaphors, and imagery-based thinking (xiang siwei, 象思维), requiring an intuitive, experiential approach—what Daoism refers to as "embodying the Way" (ti dao, 体道). To interpret Zhuangzi’s "non-dependence" through the rigid lens of conceptual analysis—as an absolute rejection of all conditions—is to misread its essence entirely.
From this mistaken premise, critics have inferred that "non-dependence" leads to nihilism or an illusory sense of subjective triumph, akin to the self-delusion of Ah Q. However, such critiques completely miss the mark; they fire blank shots that fail to engage with the core meaning of Zhuangzi’s thought. In Free and Easy Wandering (Xiaoyaoyou, 逍遥游), "non-dependence" is the central theme—indeed, it is the definition of free and easy wandering.
A classic passage from this chapter states:
"Those who ride upon the truth of heaven and earth and harness the transformations of the six vital breaths—what do they depend on?"
Clearly, "non-dependence" is not a matter of rejecting all conditions outright. The prerequisites are explicitly stated: one must "ride upon the truth of heaven and earth" and "harness the transformations of the six vital breaths." Viewed through Zhuangzi’s broader philosophy of "oneness with the Dao" (dao tong wei yi, 道通为一), it becomes evident that these conditions point to a process of attuning oneself to the Dao. In other words, the ultimate freedom represented by "non-dependence" is, in fact, the freedom of unity with the Dao.
IV
From Zhuangzi’s perspective, human existence in the tangible world is always accompanied by some form of reliance—whether material, psychological, or spiritual. This reliance, or "dependence" (you dai, 有待), is particularly evident in the human pursuit of wealth, fame, and success—all of which constrain the mind and prevent true freedom.
Because "dependence" necessarily places limits on thought and spirit, it traps individuals in a mundane state of narrow vision and intellectual mediocrity.
Zhuangzi’s concept of "non-dependence" is introduced precisely as a response to these mental and spiritual constraints. This idea aligns with his well-known "three negations" (san wu, 三无) from Free and Easy Wandering:
The Sage—without achievement (wu gong, 无功)
The Divine Person—without fame (wu ming, 无名)
The Perfected Person—without self (wu ji, 无己)
At its core, "non-dependence" is an expression of these three negations.
Does this mean that Daoism, from Laozi to Zhuangzi, fundamentally rejects worldly achievements, fame, and fortune? If one were to interpret it this way, one would be misunderstanding Daoism entirely. Neither Laozi nor Zhuangzi denies the role of accomplishment in human life. Rather, their philosophy advocates a stance of "achievement without attachment," a notion best exemplified by their principle of "completing one's work and withdrawing" (gong cheng shen tui, 功成身退).
Daoism is not an ascetic rejection of reality, nor does it advocate complete disengagement from human affairs. Instead, it teaches that those who have attained the Dao do not become trapped by their own success.
The Sage, the Divine Person, and the Perfected Person, as portrayed by Zhuangzi, are all individuals who have reached profound spiritual heights. They have accomplished great deeds for society—yet they do not claim credit for their contributions. They do not use their achievements as bargaining chips to demand perpetual rewards. On the contrary, they recognize and elevate new individuals of virtue and talent, stepping aside when necessary.
Their wisdom lies in understanding that societal progress is not static but an ongoing process that requires the constant discovery and empowerment of new capable individuals.
V
Both Confucianism and Daoism share a deep reverence for the ancient tradition of abdication, as exemplified by the legendary sage-kings Yao and Shun passing the throne to the most virtuous, rather than their own offspring. However, the two traditions differ fundamentally in their motivations for advocating this practice.
By the late Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States era, Daoism had grown increasingly critical of the ritual and musical culture (li yue, 礼乐) that had flourished since the Zhou Dynasty. From a Daoist perspective, these institutions had become rigid, artificial, and divorced from their original spontaneity. As such, Daoists not only accepted the breakdown of this ritual order—the so-called "collapse of rites and music" (li beng yue huai, 礼崩乐坏)—but in some cases, they even welcomed and accelerated it, advocating for a return to naturalness and spontaneity (dao fa zi ran, 道法自然).
Confucianism, on the other hand, viewed the erosion of Zhou Dynasty traditions as a catastrophe. To Confucians, the disintegration of the feudal order and the rise of competing states were signs of moral decline. They lamented the loss of a past golden age, believing that the Zhou system of ritual and hierarchy, as established by the Duke of Zhou, was a model of perfection. Thus, they denounced the breakdown of this system as a sign of societal degeneration.
On this issue, Confucius’s thought appears somewhat contradictory. In discussing historical change, he introduced the concept of "loss and gain" (sun yi, 损益), demonstrating a keen awareness of historical evolution. He acknowledged that each successive dynasty—Xia, Shang, and Zhou—had experienced both elements of continuity and transformation. That is, they had inherited aspects of the past while simultaneously rejecting and innovating. Confucius recognized that negating outdated elements while embracing and creating new traditions was an inevitable process of social change.
Yet, when faced with the dramatic upheavals of his own era, he did not apply this same principle. Why, then, could he not see the Warring States period through the lens of "loss and gain"? One cannot help but note that Confucius, in the face of rapid societal change, displayed a pronounced conservatism—an inclination to look backward rather than forward.
This conservative historical outlook did not merely define Confucius himself; it deeply influenced later Confucianism as a whole. Consequently, Confucian scholars struggled to fully grasp the grand transformation from the warring states' rivalries to the eventual unification of China under the Qin Dynasty. In truth, this unification represented a significant dialectical progression—what could be termed a "negation of negation" (fu ding zhi fu ding, 否定之否定)—a revolutionary transformation of Chinese society.